Apostle’s Warning: Restoring Paul’s Original Message in his First Letter to Timothy

A Preview of the Second Edition:

The apostle Paul’s first letter to Timothy is an urgent warning against a form of false teaching that was finding its way into the church community of Ephesus in Asia Minor.

Specifically, Paul warns against false teachers who devoted themselves to myths and endless genealogies (1 Timothy 1:3-4). They claimed to be teachers of the law, but did not know what they were talking about (1 Timothy 1:7). They taught a doctrine of asceticism that vilified the body and its passions; followers had to abstain from marriage and the eating of certain foods (1 Timothy 4:3). Paul refers to this teaching as demonic (1 Timothy 4:1), and he encourages Timothy to guard the gospel against opposing ideas that are falsely called “gnosis,” meaning knowledge (1 Timothy 6:20).

Paul also prohibits “a woman” from teaching or engaging in something he called “authentein” (αὐθεντεῖν) against “a man” (1 Timothy 2:12). Along with this prohibition, he makes reference to the salvation of women in childbirth (1 Timothy 2:15), and briefly reviews the story of humanity’s creation and fall into sin (1 Timothy 2:13-14).

Since Erasmus compiled his Greek/Latin Bible in the 16th century, “authentein” has been understood to mean “exercise authority.” In light of this translation, it appears as though the apostle does not permit “a woman to teach or exercise authority over a man.” Erasmus used the Latin expression “auctoritatum.” He used Jerome’s Latin Vulgate of the 4th century to aid his translation. Jerome translated “authentein” into the Latin “dominari.” This can mean “to dominate” or “to exercise dominion.” Erasmus’ Bible became the basis for the first English translations of 1 Timothy 2:12 as a prohibition against female authority. (Wilshire, 2010, pp. 76-77)

If we are to understand Paul’s letter correctly, I believe an important question must be asked: “Do these translations of Jerome and Erasmus reflect his originally intended meaning when he wrote to Timothy prohibiting authentein?” Frankly, I do not believe so. To help us understand what this word meant to the apostle Paul, I think it is helpful to examine the Scriptures he quoted from in his epistles; namely, the Greek Septuagint (c.f. Marlowe, 2012).

In the Septuagint, a noun form of “authentein” is used in following passage:

Do you remember the ancient inhabitants of your holy land? You scorned them for their unholy ways, for their sorcery and profane rituals, their callous killing of children, their cannibal feasts on human flesh and blood. They practiced secret rituals in which parents slaughtered their own defenseless children. (Wisdom of Solomon, 12:3-6, TIB)

The parents in this passage, who slaughter their children in profane rituals to false gods, are referred to as “authentas” (αὐθέντας).

A Greek historian from the second century B.C., named Polybius, also uses of a noun form of the word “authentein.” Whereas the Septuagint uses the plural “authentas,” Polybius uses the singular “authenten” (αὐθέντην). He does so in reference to a man named Cassander. In the following account, Cassander is found to be the one responsible for an event known as “the Massacre of Moronea”:

After a few days, when the Thracians had been got ready and introduced into the town at night by Cassander, a great massacre took place, and many of the citizens perished….  Philip was exceedingly taken aback by this, and after hesitating for long, said he would send Cassander, the author of the deed (αὐθέντην), as they said, in order that the senate might learn the truth from him. (Polybius; as cited in Walbank and Habicht, 2012, pp. 427-428)

In both the Septuagint and Polybius’ Histories, noun forms of the word “authentein” refer to those who perpetrate violent crimes against others. Similar uses of this word can be found throughout the Greek literature of the New Testament era. Writing in the first century B.C., Diodorus Siculus used the word on three separate occasions to mean: “perpetrators of sacrilege,” “author of crimes,” or “supporters of violent actions.” Writing in the 1st century A.D., Flavius Josephus used the term twice to mean: “perpetrator of a crime” and “perpetrators of a slaughter.” In the same period, Philo Judaeus used the term once to mean “being one’s own murderer” (Wilshire, 2010, p. 28). Writing in the 2nd century A.D., a Greek grammarian named Harpocration defined a form of this word as “a person who brings about the murder of someone through the use of others” (Wilshire, 2010, p. 23).

Why would Paul use such a typically violent word in his letter to Timothy? In thirty-two other instances of the New Testament, when Paul mentions “authority,” he uses the term “exousia.” He uses “authetein” only once (Trombley, 2003, p. 198). Were violent crimes or rituals being performed in or around Ephesus in the worship of false gods or goddesses, just as they were in the passage from the Wisdom of Solomon? Historically, the answer to this question is an unequivocal “yes”…

(End of preview.)

In the second edition of “Apostle’s Warning,” I share research from ancient Greek biblical manuscripts, Roman law, and historical documents written between the 2nd century B.C. and the 3rd century A.D..  All of these sources provide compelling evidence that Paul was not prohibiting women from “exercising authority.”  Rather, it seems that he was urging Timothy to guard the gospel against the beliefs and practices of ascetic cults in Asia Minor. The mythology of these cults evidently influenced Judaism in the region, and then went on to provide the foundation for Gnosticism in the early church.

The new book is available at the following link:
http://www.amazon.com/Apostles-Warning-Restoring-Original-Message-ebook/dp/B01BT8AAJ2/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1455574890&sr=8-1&keywords=Apostle%27s+Warning+Second+Edition

False Teaching and Violence Against Men: Understanding the language and context of 1 Timothy 2:12-15

Over the past few days, I’ve posted 3 articles that look at the meaning of “authentein” (1 Timothy 2:12) in ancient Greek history, and in the Greek Septuagint Bible.

A 2nd century B.C. author, Polybius, used the word “authentes” to refer to a man who “perpetrated a massacre.” The man’s name was Cassander, and he perpetrated “the Massacre at Maronea.”

A 1st century B.C. author, Diodorus Siculus, used the word “authentas” to refer to a group of men who “supported violence” against the Roman Senate. These men also “perpetrated a murder” at the Roman Capitol.

In the Greek Septuagint, the author of the Wisdom of Solomon used the word “authentas” to refer to parents who “slaughtered” their own children in ritual devotion to false gods. These parents are also referred to in the passage as “murderers.”

In the last of these articles, I pointed out that the apostle Paul was familiar with the Septuagint, since he quoted from it frequently in his New Testament letters. I also shared a link to a page with supporting documentation.

In all of these literary sources, a noun form of the word “authentein” means “to perpetrate or support a violent crime” (e.g. massacre, murder, slaughter). In light of these examples, I suggested that interpretations of 1 Timothy 2:12 as a prohibition against female authority are probably incorrect. Rather, it may be the case that Paul is prohibiting false teaching that somehow supported or led to the perpetration of violence against men.

I think it is important to recognize that Paul devotes much of his letter to warning Timothy about a specific form of false teaching that was evidently occurring in Ephesus. This teaching was connected with the denial of the body in pursuit of spiritual knowledge. Specifically, Paul says that the false teachers forbid marriage and the eating of certain foods. He also points out that their teaching is connected with “mythology” and an obsession with “endless genealogies.”

Many groups in and around Ephesus embraced and taught this form of spirituality: the Cybele cult, the Artemis cult and a Jewish sect known as the Essenes.

All of these groups symbolized their denial of the body through acts of ritual violence against men.

The priests of the Cybele cult castrated themselves to demonstrate they had “renounced the flesh.” They were celibate and practiced ritual fasting. Although Rome banned ritual castration in the 1st Century B.C., the priests of Cybele continued the practice.

The priests of the Artemis cult were also traditionally castrated, but they typically honored the Roman ban. They continued to “renounce the body” through mandatory celibacy and ritual fasting.

The renunciation of the body by priests of Cybele and Artemis allegedly gave them access to special revelation knowledge from their goddess.

The Essenes were a Jewish sect that in some ways mirrored the beliefs and practices of the priests of Cybele and Artemis. The Essenes also renounced the body, practiced celibacy and fasted from rich foods. They claimed that their ascetic lifestyle gave them special knowledge concerning the allegorical meanings behind Mosaic Law. They also claimed spiritual authority on the basis of “endless genealolgies,” tracing the lineage of their leaders back to the priesthood of Zadok. They symbolized their renunciation of the “flesh” through mandatory circumcision.

A sub-sect of the Essenes took the rite of circumcision even further. St Hippolytus (3rd century A.D.) referred to them as “the Secarii.” They were described as “zealous” for the Law. If they overheard a Gentile man mention God or the Law, they would forcibly circumcise him. According to a 3rd century source, if the man refused to be circumcised, these Essenes would “slaughter him.”

Evidently appalled by the genital mutilation and murder of men, Rome passed a law called the Lex Cornelia Secariis et Veneficis (literally the “law of Cornelius against murderers and poisoners”). This law specifically prohibited castration, the circumcision of non-Jews and murder. All were connected in this time period, and all were prohibited under the same law.

The priests of Cybele continued to practice castration after the ban. It seems that the priests of Artemis were generally compliant. The sect of Essenes that circumcised and slaughtered Gentiles evidently played a significant role in the Jewish uprising that eventually led to the destruction of the Temple and the dispersion.

So, was there violence done to men in connection with the kind of false teaching Paul warns Timothy against? Absolutely. It was prevalent, murderous and it is very well documented. (Thorough documentation is provided in the book, Apostle’s Warning, attached to this blog).

The oldest variation of this teaching seems to originate in Cybele mythology. Many Anatolian women in Ephesus worshiped Cybele as the goddess who would save them in childbirth. This may be why Paul makes reference to being “saved in childbearing” when he prohibits a woman from “teaching or supporting violence against a man.” Rather than looking to their goddess, and pagan rituals, for salvation, they should look instead to Jesus, and be saved by faith that shows itself in holiness (c.f. 1 Timothy 2:15).

Cybele mythology also taught that a female goddess was the source of all life and purity. It attributed sin to a collection of male deities. This may be why Paul also saw fit to remind Timothy that Adam was a source of life in Genesis, and that Eve also played a role in humanity’s fall (c.f. 1 Timothy 2:13-14).

A 2nd century A.D. Gnostic sect, known as the Naassenes, also based their ascetic understanding of the gospel on the mythology of Cybele. They too saw “castration” as representative of the renunciation of the body and its passions in pursuit of spiritual “gnosis” or knowledge. Rather than literally castrating themselves, however, they understood the mythology as a metaphor.

False teaching and violence against men: Were these things happening in Ephesus? Yes. Were they connected? Yes, directly. Is it therefore possible that Paul is prohibiting “a woman” from “teaching or supporting violence against a man”? I believe this is an evidence-based possibility, yes.

The use of “Authentas” in the History of Diodorus Siculus, 1st Century B.C.

I recently posted an article that examines the meaning of the word “authentes” in the historical works of Polybius (2nd century B.C.). The meaning of this word in its context was “perpetrator of a massacre.” Specifically, a man named Cassander was the perpetrator (authentes) of the “Massacre at Maronea.”  Authentes is a noun form of the word “authentein” used by the apostle Paul in 1 Timothy 2:12.

We find another noun form of this word in the work of a 1st century B.C. historian named Diodorus Siculus.  He uses the plural noun “authentas.”  To understand the intended meaning of this word, I’d like to look at the Greek text, an English translation and additional contextual information provided by Diodorus Siculus himself:

Greek: “αλλα καθάπερ αυθεντας ειχε τουτους ύπέρ τής ιδιας τολμής”

English: “not merely supporters but, as it were, sponsors of his [Gracchus] own daring plans.” (Diodorus Siculus, Photian fragment 35.25.1, as cited in Wilshire, 2010, Insight into Two Biblical Passages).

Context: “Gracchus, whose partisans were numerous, continued to resist; but as he was constantly and increasingly being humiliated, and had unexpected disappointments, he began to fall into a kind of frenzy and state of madness. Assembling the conspirators at his own house he decided, after consultation with Flaccus, that they must overcome their opponents by force of arms and make an attack on the consuls and the Senate. Accordingly he urged them all to wear swords beneath their togas, and as they accompanied him to pay close attention to his orders. Since Opimius was at the Capitol debating what should be done, Gracchus and his malcontents started for that place, but finding the temple already occupied and a large number of nobles collected, he withdrew to the portico behind the temple, a prey to agony of spirit and fiendish torments. While he was still in this frenzied state, a certain Quintus, a man on terms of familiarity with him, fell at his knees and besought him to take no violent or irreparable steps against the fatherland. Gracchus, however, acting now openly as a tyrant, knocked him headlong to the ground and ordered his companions to dispatch him, and to make this the beginning of reprisals against their opponents. The consul, aghast, announced to the Senate the murder and the coming attack upon themselves.” (Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, Books XXXIII-XL; as cited at simposium.ru/sites/default/files/Diodor%20XXXIII-XL.doc)

Diodorus Siculus uses the word “authentas” in reference to the men who concealed swords beneath their togas and supported Gaius Gracchus’ plans to attack the consuls in Roman Senate.  These “supporters” also perpetrated the murder of a man named Quintus.  Leland E. Wilshire (2010), in his book entitled, “Insight into Two Biblical Passages,” refers to these men as “supporters of violent actions” (p. 28).  I believe that is accurate.  I believe it is also accurate to refer to these men as “murderers,” since they did perpetrate a murder upon their arrival at the Roman Capitol.

This use of the word “authentas” is in keeping with the teaching of a 2nd century A.D. Greek grammarian named Phrynichus.  He explained that “authentas” should only be used “to define persons who murder with their own hand” (Wilshire, p. 62).  It is also consistent with Polybius’ use of the word “authentes” to refer to a man who perpetrated a massacre.

In many of our English versions of the Bible, “authentein” is translated to mean “exercise authority.”  In the historical literature of Diodorus Siculus and Polybius, however, noun forms of the same word clearly do not have this meaning.  Rather, they refer to those who perpetrate or lend their support to a violent crime.

Here are excerpts from the History of Diodorus Siculus in Greek and English, concerning the actions of Gracchus and his “supporters” (i.e. authentas):